Use of Information and Communication Technology by the World Buddhist University

This chapter is presented in three main sections:

a discussion of the way ICT developments are affecting global communication,
the existing theoretical knowledge regarding the need for educational institutions to adapt to meet the new demands, and the emergence of virtual institutions,
examples of networked organisations similar to the WBU and an explanation of why this research is needed.

2.1 Impact of the Internet and ICT on Global Communications

In order to answer my research question on the use of ICT by the WBU it is important to discuss the way the Internet, ICT innovations and globalisation have changed the way we communicate. The salient change is that communications can now occur at great speed between people in most parts of the world. Globally networked organisations such as the WBU would not exist in a virtual form without this dissolution of time and space made possible by the Internet and ICT developments. The WBU headquarters is located in Thailand, therefore a discussion of the issue concerning access to technology in developing countries is also included.

2.1.1 The Internet and ICT

The Internet has made an unprecedented impact on how Information Technology may be used for communications. Information Technology deals with the storage, processing and dissemination of information, especially using computers (Brown, 1993, p. 1364). Information and Communication Technology is an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application (Tech Target Network, 2004) facilitating information exchange and communication. Radio, television, mobile phones, computer and network hardware and software, and satellite systems are all examples of ICT, as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and distance learning (Tech Target Network, 2004). Another development, the Intranet, works in the same way as the Internet, and enables people to communicate on internal email systems and share data stored on common servers. Intranets are particularly useful for linking the offices of organisations in a building or even around the world (Dodge & Kitchin, 2001, p. 4). The main interest in ICT today is the way it is changing how we collect, store and share information and the ways we communicate.

2.1.2 Asynchronous and synchronous ICT systems

Millions of people around the world now communicate with others using asynchronous email, mailing lists and bulletin board systems. Asynchronous systems are those which allow users to retrieve or respond to messages when they choose. Synchronous systems such as Internet Relay Chat allow synchronous communication between people in real time (Dodge & Kitchin, 2001, p. 3; Ingram, Hawthorn & Evans, 2000, p. 21). Other systems such as MUDs (Multiple User Domains) and MOOs (Multiple Object-Orientated environments) immerse learners in virtual worlds, albeit text based ones (Dodge & Kitchin, 2001, pp. 3-4; Ingram et al., 2000, p. 21). Although these synchronous systems do not have all the benefits of face-to-face interaction, users "have developed a number of ways to impart such information through textual and visual means" (Dodge & Kitchin, 2001, p. 4). Recommendations for how these systems may be used in the context of education is discussed in section 2.2.7 of the Literature Review.

2.1.3 ICT and globalisation

McGrew (1992, p. 25) explains that technological innovation and its diffusion is "one of the most powerful engines of globalization in the twentieth century". Henning (1998, p. 27) suggests that globalisation is driven by the decreasing costs of ICT, whereas, Zinkin (2001, p. 27) contends that globalisation is driven by easier communication of knowledge. Buzan (1998, cited in Held, McGrew, Goldblatt & Perraton, 2000, p. 54) locates globalisation on a "continuum with the local, national and global." One detailed explanation of globalisation follows:

Globalization can be thought of as a... (... set of processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organisation of social relations and transactions - assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact - generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction, and the exercise of power. (Held et al., 2000, p. 55)

No single definition of globalisation exists, however, one especially relevant to this study is provided by Held et al (2000, p. 3): "Globalization refers to entrenched and enduring patterns of worldwide interconnectedness rather than mere random encounters".

2.1.4 Global communications

Information exchange and communications today are increasingly digital, global and almost instantaneous (Dodge & Kitchin, 2001, pp. 2-5; Henning, 1998, pp. 1-2, 5; Thompson, 2000, p. 202; Zinkin, 2001, p. 27). Rogers (1999) affirms that, "With the advent of the Internet in the academic and research community, we now add the ability to collaborate, communicate, share, and exchange... in ways that are truly now transforming our economy and, increasingly, our culture".

2.1.5 Supercession of space and time

Information and Communication Technologies can be used at anytime of the day or night and from just about anywhere in the world. "Individuals can interact with one another, or can act within frameworks of mediated quasi-interaction, even though they are situated, in terms of the practical contexts of their day-to-day lives, in different parts of the world" (Thompson, 2000, p. 202). Rogers (2003, p. 405) suggests that the Internet has practically eliminated the costs of communication across physical space. McGrew (1992, p. 25) writes that communications technologies have "shrunk the globe". This phenomena has been labeled by Thompson (2000, p. 202) as the 'uncoupling of space and time' and as the notion that 'distance has been eclipsed', Castells (2000, p. 502) as 'supercession of space and the annihilation of time' and by others as 'time and space compression' as indicated in the comprehensive review of globalisation by Held and McGrew (2000, p. 3). Gillespie and Williams (1988, cited in Dodge & Kitchin, 2001, p. 14) argue that the use of terms to describe telecommunications like 'distance shrinking' fail to capture the essential essence, as they render distance entirely meaningless. What Mc Grew (1992), Castells (2000), Thompson (2000) and others suggest is that the widespread use of the Internet and the rapid development of ICT have removed traditional geographic boundaries of exchange between people around the world. The receding importance of space and time has particular implications for research into networks of people living in different parts of the world and functioning in different time zones.

2.1.6 Networks beyond space and time

Networks are appropriate for organisations aiming at the 'supercession of space and the annihilation of time' and are appropriate instruments for organisations (such as the WBU under study) based on innovation, globalisation, and decentralised concentration, flexibility and adaptability (Castells, 2000, p. 502).

Networks constitute the new social morphology of our societies, and the diffusion of networking logic substantially modifies the operation and outcomes in processes of production, experience, power, and culture. While the networking form of social organisation has existed in other times and spaces, the new information technology paradigm provides the material basis for its pervasive expansion throughout the entire social structure. (Castells, 2000, p. 500).

Mulgan (1991, p. 3) claims that, in fact, a world built on networks, "calls into question older conceptions of space and power" and "challenges traditional categories and structures on many fronts". Although Mulgan (1991, p. 3) was writing well over a decade ago, his observation still applies today; "Where the early market economies grew out of the temporal and spacial regularities of city life, today's are built on the logical or 'virtual' regularities of electronic communication, a new geography of nodes and hubs, processing and control centers".

The World Buddhist University is a new kind of network in the sense defined by Castells (2000) and Mulgan (1991) in the previous paragraph. The description of this advanced kind of network could be synonymous with Rogers' (2003, pp. 405-406) definition of a virtual organisation; "a network of geographically-distant employees [or colleagues or staff and students] who are linked by electronic communication". Rogers (2003, pp. 405-406) explains that "Virtual organizations would not be possible without the Internet". The most pertinent comment that Rogers (2003, p. 406) makes, that relates to this research involving the World Buddhist University, is that, "Communication is fundamental to any organization, but in virtual organizations communication is preeminent".

2.1.7 What about the 'digital divide'?

Not all people are equally advantaged with the introduction of the Internet and this has been labeled the 'digital divide' (Digital Divide Network, 2004; Pannyavaro, 2001). It is estimated that there are 429 million people online, however this is only 6% of the world population (Digital Divide Network, 2004). What is more, 41% of people who are online are in North America (Digital Divide Network, 2004). We have a 'digital divide' not only because a small proportion of the world's population have access to modern technologies but also because these technologies are unequally distributed across society. This has implications for any research on the World Buddhist University network because its work is conducted in countries taking up technology at different rates due to the 'digital divide'.

Rogers (2003, p. 469) argues that "as the rate of diffusion of the Internet approaches saturation, the digital divide as we know it will disappear". Rogers (2003, p. 471) bases his claim on the evidence of efforts "such as providing public access to computers and the Internet in cyber cafe and telecentres". Rogers addresses the issue of the digital divide within a nation (the US), but the issue of the divide between developed and developing countries is unresolved. Halls (2002, p. 3) explains that, "Unequal power situations are not new in history and globalisation processes cannot create complete equality either". Technology does not promise to bring greater equality in the world and this remains an issue, however there is no doubt about the opportunities globalisation and technology bring to those who are connected.

APEC (1998, cited in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2000) reported that "Some countries, notably Thailand, have experienced difficulties in keeping pace with ... unmet demand for telecommunications services". There is evidence to suggest that telecommunications are yet to permeate the villages in Thailand because the infrastructure to support their use is not yet available (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2000). To address social issues through the use of ICT, The Royal Thai Government (2002) devised a policy to modernise the telecommunications system "and enable it to reach all parts of the country for the benefit of receiving and sending information and knowledge to the people, with linkages to other countries, and lay the foundation for the liberalization of the telecommunications business". Recent policies, such as the example above, suggest Thailand is one developing nation that is moving towards realising the opportunities that globalisation presents. The actualisation of these policies in Thailand will benefit the World Buddhist University in realising its aims and objectives into the future.

One of the Associated Institutions of the World Buddhist University is located in Australia where, in comparison, a high proportion of the population use computers and access the Internet. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003) reported that 66% of Australian adults used a computer in 2002. Furthermore, the number of adults using the Internet continued to increase "from 31% ... in 1998 to 58% in 2002" (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004). Australians have been recognised as early adopters of technology. This first section (of three) of the Literature Review has made explicit the types of ICT innovations that are affecting the way people communicate, and particularly the benefits of these developments to global networks. This is pertinent because the organisation I am researching is a globally networked learning organisation. A consideration of the unequal access to these technologies by all people is essential as this issue remains unresolved and will impact on the scope of the operations of the WBU network.

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2.2 Impact of ICT on Education

This second section of the Literature Review discusses the arguments for the need for change in learning institutions to prepare students with the knowledge and skills now demanded in other segments of society. A consideration of the impact of ICT on the learning process and the greater emphasis being placed on lifelong learning is also discussed. This section concludes with a consideration of how culture may influence the way learning theory might be understood.

2.2.1 The traditional paradigm of education

Cohen (1987 cited in, Hodas, 1993) is often quoted for pointing out that, "The structure of schools and the nature of teaching have remained unchanged for seven hundred years, and there exists in the popular mind a definite, conservative conception of what schools should be like, a template from which schools stray only at their peril". Rogers (2003, p. 433) explains that organisations are a "stable system of individuals who work together to achieve common goals". Importantly, however, "innovation is ongoing" (Rogers, 2003, p. 433) and this applies to educational organisations.

2.2.2 Educational institutions and the need for change

Rogers (1999) and Hodas (1993) argue that schools were not designed to do the tasks that are now demanded of them. Greater demands are being placed on education systems at all levels to produce citizens who can use knowledge in new domains and different situations, to think critically, analyse and synthesise information, and to work effectively in teams (Harper, Hedberg & Wright, 2000, p. 163; Richardson, 2002, p. 47). One reason the use of technology has not been rapidly implemented in schools stems from a mismatch between the values of school organisation and those embedded within the contesting technology (Hodas, 1993; Rogers, 1999). Schools are still stuck in an outdated paradigm where teachers 'deliver' the 'body of knowledge' to students (Richardson, 2002, p. 51; Rogers, 1999; Spender, 1995, p. 100). For these reasons we are confronted by a growing need to modify the classic pedagogical practices, restructure the educational establishment and rethink the role we have traditionally set for teachers and students (Moore, 1995; Spender, 1995, p. 100).

There has been a shift in education towards a business paradigm where the emphasis is providing a 'service' to 'clients' in tertiary education today as opposed to the traditional view (McNamara, 1990, p. 242). More recently, Henning (1998, p. 32) suggested that "in the digital age corporate re-invention will become a necessary core competence" and we can apply this to our higher education organisations as they are increasingly run as businesses.

Fullan (1993, p. 4) argues that teachers play an important role in change as, "Systems do not normally change from the top ... It is the cumulative actions of individuals, connected together, which make change." Fullan (1993, p. 1) does not oversimplify the reality of dealing with change, he explains that "it means recognizing the dynamic complexity of change, and the need to monitor that in detail". Rogers (2003, p. 419) advises that the adoption of innovations takes time:

Insight into the innovation process in organizations can be gained from recent research on the diffusion and adoption of such new communication technologies as personal computers and e-mail in companies. One might expect that these innovations would be obviously advantageous and that their diffusion would be rapid and relatively effortless, but such is not the case. These new communication technologies represent a very major change in human behaviour, and require a good deal of learning, and time.

This is important for the WBU because it has been established as a virtual university that relies on the new technologies. What is interesting here is that Rogers (2003) explains that it takes time to adopt innovations because it requires people to change the way they work, so this could have implications for the WBU.

2.2.3 Models for response to new ICT

Almost ten years ago Moore (1995), suggested that there were at least four models that explain the way educators would respond to new technologies:

The minimal change model - in which instructors make no fundamental changes but merely use technology as an instructional aid;
The marginal change model - in which the pedagogy and organisation of education remain unchanged and students are added on to conventionally taught classes;
Systemic change in which institutions change the fundamental organisation of teaching by reorganizing it into a system driven by technology; and
A virtual system in which universities and schools are "place free, with little or no formal organisation". (Moore, 1995)

Moore's categories are useful for exploring educators' responses to technology. In the next sections I describe particular organisations and relate them back to Moore's model, however I acknowledge that within a single organisation differing individual responses to technology will exist. We need to ensure we do not delimit the potential use of ICT by placing educators and learners in one 'technology box' or another.

2.2.4 Examples of the use of ICT in education

For decades distance education has been indispensable for students in remote locations in Australia. Students no longer need to travel, and Open Learning is one example of this phenomenon. Deakin University offered Open Learning in Australia in 1979 based on a British model. Open Learning exists in Thailand and provides mostly for the working population (The Continuing Education Centre of Chulalongkorn University, 2002) and other countries. Traditional Universities are increasingly offering 'off-campus' learning (Monash University, 2003, p. 1). The courses offered at traditional universities and Open Learning are similar to the courses taken on-campus. However, this is only an example of marginal change according to Moore (1995) as the students are added onto existing courses and the pedagogy is unchanged by the use of ICT.

One inspiring initiative is The Global Classroom initiated by the Department of Education, Employment and Training (Victoria) (Department of Education Employment and Training, 2004). In its ninth year, the Global Classroom offers both synchronous and asynchronous collaborative projects and is an example of ICT being integrated into the curriculum. In relation to Moore's (1995) model, the Global Classroom is an example of systemic change beginning to occur. The preceding sections focus on the provision of education at the institutional level. How ICT impacts on students' learning processes and how this may be translated into pedagogy that supports learning through ICT are explored in the following sections.

2.2.5 ICT and learning

Dertouzos (1998, p. 175), Director of the MIT Laboratory for Computer Sciences, asks the pertinent question, Will these changes (the use of ICT in Schools) actually improve learning? Except in a few cases, harnessing technology to traditional paradigms has not had any notable effect on learning and there is little proof that such experiences actually improve learning (Dertouzos, 1998, p. 175; Rogers, 1999). Dertouzos and Rogers do not mean to discourage the advocacy of technology in learning (White, 2002, p. 3). Dertouzos (1998, p. 175) offers an extensive, well-grounded vision of the new approaches that will truly improve learning, such as simulators and electronic world libraries. Reinhardt (1995) proposes that "this generation of technology promise more than just an improvement in educational productivity: It may deliver a qualitative change in the nature of learning itself".

2.2.6 Revisiting constructivism

There is an abundance of research reporting on the use of ICT systems that support constructivist theory and collaborative learning in localised settings. Constructivism, proposes that learners construct their own reality, or at least interpret it based on their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of prior experiences (Jegede, 1992; Moore, 1995; Papert & Harel, 1991; Rheingold, 1991, p. 375). The use of ICT applied to constructivist learning principles relates to the way the 'students' of the WBU may build their knowledge, because it is congruous with the Buddhist philosophy that each person must investigate for himself or herself.

Turner (1995, p. 1033) writes that while computers have been available in schools since the early 1980's, their contribution to constructivist learning has been limited. Turner (1995, p. 1034) evaluates research in a contemporary school where teachers were committed to constructivist learning. Turner concluded that "teachers can be a valued participant in constructivist change" (Turner, 1995, p. 1034). Turner (1995, p. 1041) found examples of improved learning due to constructivist opportunities, but hesitated to highlight them as this would seem to deny the structural limitations that remained in contemporary schooling. The study supported Papert's contention regarding the incompatibility of such structures with constructivist learning principles but also found that some constructivist advancement could be made within the existing structure (Turner, 1995, p. 1041).

The Connected Family (2001) and MaMaMedia (2004) are examples of learning environments based on constructivist principles where "kids discover by doing and create while clicking" (MaMaMedia, 2004). These systems were designed by Seymour Papert. Papert had worked with Jean Piaget who spent much time observing how children 'constructed' their own worlds (Papert, 1999). Papert has extended the work of Piaget by demonstrating how technology can be used to support children's construction of their own knowledge (Rheingold, 1991, p. 375; The Connected Family, 2001). Papert's work is a virtual system where children use the Internet to access creative tools, however this system goes beyond Moore's models. Russell and Holkner (2000, p. 2) would describe this system as a 'coaching virtual system' as it provides supplementary education.

2.2.7 Creative teaching methods and the age of the active learners

It is now possible to implement creative teaching methods that enhance the learning process through constructivist theory and collaborative learning. Many theorists support constructivist and collaborative projects to enhance learning. Collaborative Learning supports the active learning mode in which students assume a greater role in enhancing their learning (Alam & Rencis, 1998, p. 26; Ingram et al., 2000, p. 21; Vouk, Bitzer & Klevans, 1999, p. 684). In their comprehensive review of educational software, Harper, Hedberg and Wright (2000, p. 163) argue that "to take advantage of contemporary views of learning, instructional designers need to employ design models that incorporate the variety of ideas that are based on constructivist frameworks for developing learning environments."

Research into hypermedia systems is a growing area because of the increasing amount of teamwork being done by people in different locations. Haake, Pfister and Wessner (1999, pp. 20-27) implemented a learning world, modeled as a shared hypermedia document base, consisting of a number of rooms designed to facilitate cooperative learning in a distributed learning setting. Haake et al. (1999) evaluate two hypermedia systems prototypes and explain how their work goes beyond related work. Their hypermedia system:

supports synchronous and asynchronous learning in distributed group.
supports the flexible organisation of learning material.
provides specific support for social orientation by using the virtual room metaphor.
supports coordination via learning protocols, and
aids monitoring of group progress by making the group knowledge status explicit via learning nets. (Haake et al., 1999, p. 27)

Students liked the possibility of remote access however the audio quality provided by the IP-based audio conferencing was not sufficient in its present capacity. Furthermore, overheads for coordination between remote sites was still too high. These findings have implications for distributed organisations and virtual universities.

Another localised study based on the constructivist framework was conducted by Kafai, Carter and Marshall (1997, p. 117), although this study was different in its approach to Turner (1995) as it evaluated the learning experiences of children as they collaboratively designed multimedia. Kafai et al. (1997, p. 125) found that students would need more support in the collaborative process if it is to be effective for all individual learners. On the positive side, students were involved with complex issues and dealt with multiple demands in designing and implementing their work (Kafai et al., 1997, p. 125).

Synchronous Computer Mediated Communications (CMC) are becoming increasingly important to education not only because of the quick access to information on the Internet but also because they fit well into the current emphasis on collaboration and communication in education in general (Ingram et al., 2000, p. 21). In research presented by Ingram et al. (2000, p. 31-32) recommendations were made for particular uses of synchronous and asynchronous systems:

Discussions that require background research and careful reflection are more appropriate for asynchronous online discussions.
Chat systems are useful for discussions that build on the strengths of the medium: brainstorming, some problem solving and similar tasks. In setting up and running synchronous discussion, it needs to be decided whether it is to have a moderator - someone to lead the discussion, keep it on track and so forth.

These recommendations may be useful in the planning for such systems by the WBU.

Wilson (2000, pp. 67-76) reported that Computer Mediated Communications (CMC) help prepare students for using these tools in their career and are useful as a medium for delivering distance education (Wilson, 2000, p. 67). Wilson found that students who normally performed well also adapted well to the use of technology while other groups did not (Wilson, 2000, p. 74-75).

A project aimed at trailing an Open and Distance Model training system in a workplace reported that the main advantage was a best cost-benefit ratio, as well as flexibility in terms of place and time (Ferraris, Manca, Persico & Sarti, 2000, p. 89). The findings of Ferraris et al.'s (2000, p. 91) study suggest that trainers and managers were still tuned to face-to-face teaching and that participants would need to adapt to the use of technology to accommodate a new way of learning.

2.2.8 New paradigms for education

The relationship between teachers and students is changing: teachers are becoming 'facilitators' rather than sole directors of education, as collaborative and cooperative learning has become an important component of education at all levels (Ingram et al., 2000, p. 28; Spender, 1995, p. 115). Rogers (1999) writes, "When teachers are given (or take) the freedom to change how they teach ... to move from 'instructional deliverers' to 'side-by-side learners', we see technology employed in drastically different ways ... more akin to the ways [in which] other segments of our society are using them". Furthermore, Rogers (1993, p. 230) makes the significant comment that this facilitation of significant learning relies on attitudinal qualities of the personal relationship between the learner and facilitator.

2.2.9 The rise of virtual education

Already people can now travel via Internet to the hundreds, possibly thousands, of dynamic places of learning known as virtual schools and universities. Our traditional educational institutions are moving beyond the four walls of the classroom with the introduction of virtual education via the Internet. It has been predicted that, in the future, virtual schools will continue to increase and become a genuine challenge to traditional education as we currently know it (Russell & Holkner, 2000, p. 12). Russell and Holkner (2000, p. 1) advise that, "it is important to plan ahead for the implications of virtual schooling on the educational system". Russell and Holkner's (2000, p. 12) answer to the question, "Is this the late age of the conventional school?" is that "this is the beginning of a process which will see the transformation of schooling". This does not mean we are about to see traditional education become non-existent but we can confirm that institutions are changing and new organisations are emerging (Martinich, 2002; Russell & Holkner, 2000; Spender, 1995).

An example of a school that has combined face-to-face experiences with an electronic venue is the Rocky View Virtual School (Rocky View Virtual School Program, 2000). This school uses both synchronous and asynchronous electronic communications (Rocky View Virtual School Program, 2000). Moore (1995) would describe this as a systemic change as it is driven by technology, but it is not place free. Whereas Russell and Holkner (2000, p. 2) would describe it as a hybrid virtual school as it offers a virtual component and a face-to-face component for socialisation.

The first university without walls was the Paideia Virtual University (Karaliotas, 1997). Students attend classes held in virtual classes through a MOO (Multi-user, Object Orientated program) service imitating a traditional university. The first Australian to be awarded an online degree from this virtual university was Ken Eustace, an academic from Charles Sturt University who completed his MA (The Australian, 1995, p. 35). The coursework and thesis portfolio entitled An MA (Paideia) Ethnographic Portfolio of Ken Eustace May 1994- July 1995 (Eustace, 1995) confirms that the Paideia model is in accordance with Moore's (1995) definition an example of a virtual system in that it is place-free. Russell and Holkner would define it as a cyberspace virtual school as it is independent of geographic place (Russell & Holkner, 2000, p. 2).

2.2.10 Ideology of lifelong learning challenging our traditional models of education

The ideology of lifelong learning is also challenging the traditional teacher and student model. Lifelong learning has assumed immense importance (Aspin, Collard & Chapman, 2000, p. 171) because of the "accelerating pace at which new knowledge, technologies, processes, work methods and organizational forms are being introduced in the knowledge-based economy" (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2000, pp. 56-57). Aspin, Collard and Chapman (2000, p. 171) reviewed evidence in international policies that suggest lifelong learning should be instituted as a way of dealing with some of the major world problems. International organisations with which Australia has strong links, namely, OECD, UNESCO, and the Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation Forum (APEC) "have revealed a strong commitment to policies of learning across the lifespan" (Aspin et al., 2000, p. 171). Buddhism has always advocated learning across the life span or even 'lifetimes of learning' (Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd., 2004). This relates to this research on the WBU because participants are likely to be of the lifelong learning mindset.

2.2.11 Consideration of the effects of culture on perception

Most of the literature reviewed is produced in Western countries and grounded in Western pedagogical traditions. There is an inherent danger in applying those principles in non-western countries. It is essential to note that culture may affect the way we might perceive teaching and learning, notions such as constructivist learning, and terms like 'active learning'. When we enter a research setting in another country, we have to be wary of assumptions based on Western pedagogy.

Rogers (2003, p. 441) warns that cultural relativism poses problems for the measurement of the desirability of an innovation in another country because judgments are almost unavoidably value-laden. "Cultural relativism is the viewpoint that each culture should be judged in light of its own specific circumstances and needs" (Rogers, 2003, p. 441). It is appropriate to point out that there may be major differences in the approach of individual learners in Thailand and learners in Australia. For example, in Thailand the education system is based on Buddhism. Culturally, this means Thai people have strong faith in this system of teaching and learning and great respect for teachers. Buddhist tradition emphasises learning through doing rather than placing emphasis on the cognitive aspects that are the focus of Western notions of learning. If a teacher were to ask a student to do something in Thailand then the student may have faith that they would learn the wisdom in the 'action'. In contrast, Australian students commonly ask 'Why?' and this may be considered 'active' learning. This scenario shows how our different cultural positions affect our perceptions. It is important to ensure that any research in Thailand take into consideration the Thai culture in which it is located.

The main insights from the literature in this section are set out below:

Schools are stable organisations suited to the purposes for which they were built, however innovation is ongoing.
Schools will need to evolve to meet the new skills and knowledges required of students in their future workplaces.
Change takes time and teachers can be instrumental in this development.
There is little proof that technology improves learning when applied to traditional paradigms.
ICT developments are likely to improve opportunities for constructivist learning.
Some research has indicated that people attempting to study using technology need to adapt to the new mindset and other research has indicated that this has been easier for people who have done well in traditional settings.
The ideology of lifelong learning is a shift in mindset that is influencing changes in education.
Culture may affect perceptions of learning.

This section has focused on the ways ICT has affected education and learning. These points were considered in my treatment of the data. The review of the literature now turns to examples of networked learning organisations like the WBU.

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2.3 Examples of Networked Organisations

The following section presents examples of globally networked organisations that are relevant to this study as they bear a degree of resemblance to the WBU model. It also gives reason for this study into the use of ICT by the WBU.

2.3.1 The United Nations networked organisations

The United Nations is a globally networked organisation working for humanitarian causes. The United Nations has been instrumental in setting up and maintaining other organisations to meet specific objectives. Two of the educational organisations it has established are United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organisation (UNECSO) and the United Nations University (UNU).

In 1989, UNESCO and the Council of Europe established CULTURELINK, a network of networks whose aims are to "strengthen communication among its members; to collect, process and disseminate information on culture and culture development in the world; to encourage joint projects and cultural cooperation" (CULTURELINK, 2004). The physical focal point is the Institute for International Relations, Croatia. The CULTURELINK Network set up its Internet Gopher service in 1994. Since 1996, CULTURELINK has been developing its website which now contains publications including an archive of the CULTURELINK REVIEW and an online databank.

The other example of a networked organisation is the United Nations University established in 1973. The University's headquarters carries out work at its Tokyo, Japan location and coordinates the global network. The UNU should therefore be seen both as a network itself, and also as a 'network of networks' (United Nations University, 2004). The UNU organisations work together to meet common humanitarian objectives outlined in their charter. The UNU operates from multiple locations and in this sense is a globally networked learning organisation. This is a new model for a university because it is not modelled on a traditional university. The United Nations networks could be considered innovative.

2.3.2 The World Buddhist University (WBU)

The World Fellowship of Buddhists established the World Buddhist University in the same way that the United Nations has established the UNU, UNESCO and CULTURELINK. The WBU is based on the UNU model. This organisation supports the ideals of the UNU but has its own networks and ideologies as well. The WBU is a virtual university with a physical location in Thailand that functions as the coordinating centre of regional and international activities and information and communication exchange. Like the UNU the WBU has approved Associated Institutions in different countries around the world.

The WBU website is structured around its four internal institutes: Research and Development, Training and Curriculum Development, Spiritual Practice, Educational Development and Information and Cultural Exchange. The website includes facilities such as a webboard and has the ability for the public to comment on articles. The models described by Moore (1995) apply to how traditional institutions such as schools are changing and Russell and Holkner's (2000) models define the types of virtual schools. The WBU does not fit into these models because the WBU is a globally networked learning organisation. It is early days for the WBU but it has been established with strong foundations and its future holds much promise. The WBU is a new model of virtual university.

2.3.3 Required research into the effects of adopting ICT

Further research is needed into the effects of innovations such as virtual organisations. Rogers (2003, pp. 440-441) explains that there have been so few studies of the consequences because change agencies, which often sponsor the research, assume that the consequences will be positive; the usual survey research methods are less appropriate for the investigation of innovation consequences than for studying innovativeness and consequences are difficult to measure. We need to ask, "What are the effects of adopting new innovations?" (Rogers, 2003, p. 440). This indicates that there is a gap in the literature on the effects of innovations such as ICT. My research into the WBU is a one step into this new and necessary area of research. It is important to consider the effects of change in the WBU, particularly in the use of ICT, to ensure that the use of these innovations is producing the desired outcomes of the organisation.

In summary, the Internet and ICT developments have had a significant impact on the networked learning organisations aiming at immediate communications between people in different countries. The unresolved issue of unequal access to these technologies may impact the operations of the WBU as an organisation relying on these technologies. Technology does not promise equality in the world, but it does promise vast benefits to those connected. In terms of the traditional educational institutions there is now a need for people to adapt to use these technologies in ways similar to other segments of society. Some discussion of how technology is being used to promote constructivist learning has been discussed because it may correlate with the Buddhist philosophy of learning. Technology is used in education to support existing pedagogy. Further research is needed into the ways technology may actually improve learning. Buddhism in itself offers many paths to reach the same goal, so a Buddhist learning environment would need a new system to encompass this. No known system exists in Western pedagogy that readily lends itself to this practice. In relation to the World Buddhist University, which has been established to link the many traditions of Buddhist organisations and scholars the, closest structure suitable for such a task is the UNU model of a networked organisation. This research is needed because the WBU is a new type of university.

The next chapter explains the methodology of this research.

Information and Communication Technology is indispensable in the operation of a virtual university. The World Buddhist University is a new model virtual university. The research for this thesis was based on the broad guiding question: "How does the World Buddhist University use Information and Communication Technology to facilitate communication and learning through its network?" The findings are presented in three main sections. The first section discusses how ICT is used to meet the objectives of the WBU. The second section explores issues particular to the WBU and finally presents suggestions for future development.

4.1 How ICT is Used to Meet WBU Objectives

This first section of findings includes data on what ICT is used by the WBU, a discussion of ICT facilitating the global network, information and screen pictures of the WBU website, and a summary and discussion of the benefits and limitations of ICT as perceived by the WBU.

4.1.1 ICT used by the WBU

This section describes the ICT used by the WBU. During interviews, respondents were asked to select from a list the Information and Communication Technology that they use. The same list was used in the questionnaires. Responses to this question have been tallied (Table 4.1: Tally of technologies used by World Buddhist University 'faculty' and 'students').

Participant responses to the question on type of ICT used Technology

Type	Yes	%	No	%	No answer	Total
Internet	33	82.5	2	5	5	40
External Email	32	80	3	7.5	5	40
Scanner	22	55	13	32.5	5	40
Digital camera	27	67.5	8	20	5	40
Computers	34	85	1	2.5	5	40
Computer Network	32	80	3	7.5	5	40
Internal Email	26	65	9	22.5	5	40
Cd Burners	19	47.5	16	40	5	40
Video Camera	20	50	15	37.5	5	40
Audio	27	67.5	8	20	5	40
Printers	33	82.5	2	5	5	40
Telephone	33	82.5	2	5	5	40
Mail	32	80	3	7.5	5	40
Fax	32	80	3	7.5	5	40
Others	14	35	4	10	22	40

Table 4.1: Tally of technologies used by World Buddhist University 'faculty' and 'students'

The responses to technology used, suggested that the level of expertise of participants was high and that they were widely used. Over 80% of respondents used Internet, external email, computers, computer network, printers, telephone, mail, and fax. Of all respondents, 67.5% used digital cameras and/or audio technology. Less than 50% of respondents have used a CD burner. A scanner was used by 55% of participants, and 50% used a video camera. The results appear positive however responses did not reveal proficiency levels. About fifteen respondents later expressed the desire to learn more about the technology (see 4.1.4: Perceived benefits and limitations of using ICT). Of the 40 participants, 14 indicated that they used technologies other than those listed. A list of the other technologies mentioned at Question Two and other sections of the interview/questionnaire have been tabulated below.

Participant responses to the question on other technology used

'Other' technology used by participants	No. of respondents
LAN/server technology/Intranet/FTP/Internet broadband, ADSL/websites/internet multimedia	11
digital projector/overhead projector	7
mobile telephone/digital camera phone	4
software - ISYS/PowerPoint	4
photocopies	3
e-learning/distance learning/e-books	3
digital video/webcam	2
laptop	2
DVD burner/CD	2
car (ha ha)	1
Radio	1
paperless mobile office/paperless fax/CDMA data	1
Lights	1

Table 4.2: List of 'other' technologies used by respondents

The 'other technologies' question showed that some participants were very advanced in their use of ICT because they used server technology to build or use networks and/or work with websites (Table 4.2: List of 'other' technologies used by respondents). Others used digital projectors to display presentations. One respondent indicated that he ran a completely paperless office, meaning all his work was conducted electronically.

4.1.2 ICT used to facilitate the global network

The WBU was established to coordinate a network of Buddhist organisations and scholars. To achieve this, a two phase implementation plan was written into the WBU Charter:

1. The First Phase during B.E. 2542 - 2543 (1999 - 2000) will focus on the educational system and the emphasis shall be given to research, training, spiritual practice, academic seminar, exchange of Buddhist resource persons and development of the University to be ready for the academics, management and financing in accordance with the Second Phase.

2. The Second Phase shall begin from B.E. 2544 (2001) onwards during which the university will enjoy academics, management and financial support that may enable the University to expand its operation to link formal, non-formal and informal education with the needs of local and global societies. (WBU, 2003b)

The first phase was the development of the foundation for the global network. The network now comprises ten Buddhist organisations identified as Associated Institutions of the WBU and Buddhist Scholars. These Associated Institutions carry out their work at the local level. Some Associated Institutions operate at the national level, while the WBU coordinates the activities at the global level. The WBU is a globalised organisation in accordance with the Buzan definition (1998, cited in Held et al., 2000, p. 54) that locates globalisation on a "continuum with the local, national and global" as mentioned in the Literature Review (section 2.1.3 ICT and globalisation). The WBU is structured as a global network (Figure 4.1: WBU structure).

Figure 4.1: WBU structure

The WBU is now in the second phase of the implementation plan. The Associated Institutions are interconnected via the WBU in the way described by Held et al. (2000, p. 3) in the Literature Review (refer to section 2.1.3 ICT and globalisation), "Globalization refers to entrenched and enduring patterns of worldwide interconnectedness rather than mere random encounters". The Information Officer (at WBU) said "We have to follow the globalisation of technology in order to meet the objective of becoming a really big Buddhist University." The Director of the Rector's Office (at WBU) said, "Now the world comes in [to] globalisation we would like ... to join in ... We have to work hard to work together with Christians and Muslims, etc. using like metta [loving-kindness] to work together on world problems." The WBU aims to achieve its objectives through the worldwide interconnectedness facilitated by ICT. A few respondents described the WBU as the 'academic centre for World Buddhism'.

The Associated Institutions are Buddhist Universities, Temples and Centres. The WBU Centre provides academic services to the WFB network, which links 140 organisations as Regional Centres. The WBU also facilitates learning and research by acting as a link between the Associated Institutions and Buddhist Scholars. A council of twenty members govern the WBU.

The WBU Centre organises the Associated Institutions under its four Institutes and one Centre:

Institute of Research and Development;
Institute of Spiritual Practice;
Institute of Training and Curriculum Development;
Institute of the Educational Development Based on Buddhism; and
Information and Cultural Exchange Centre.

Buddhist Scholars and Directors of each internal institute use ICT to send and search for information particular to their own objectives. The Director of the Institute of Research and Development (WBU) said "...we are the key to this role of the WBU ...within the next few years then we will have a rather complete list of Buddhist Scholars all over the World. Then these scholars are connected."

The World Buddhist University is collecting information about research underway by Buddhist Scholars around the world and also about Buddhist organisations and their activities. The benefits of this data warehouse are described by The Director of the Institute of Research and Development (WBU) said, "Right now there are so many Buddhist Scholars and institutions doing their own research but... once they are connected then it will become so powerful and this is the main task of the World Buddhist University." The Director of the Rector's Office (WBU) said, "The objective of the World Buddhist University is to provide a facility for the WBU associate centers, Buddhist scholars and the people around the world access to the WBU through the WBU Network System of Information and Communication Technology." The researcher interviewed persons from each institute and was able to ascertain that technology was useful for carrying out their specific functions.

The WBU Network is structured like UNESCO and the UNU and uses technology to achieve its goal as a networked organisation. A Buddhist Scholar from the Institute of Spiritual Practice (WBU) said "We want to work like UNESCO. We have to use our scholars around the world... and... network together." The Acting Rector (WBU) explains this model,

The WBU is unlike the normal university as it is a university without walls. There is no faculty, there is no big building like normal university[s] have. We follow the guidelines by the United Nations University. In this connection we try to use the network system by associating with both institution which offer Buddhist education in their respective organisation and associate with the Buddhist Scholars worldwide. ...it is necessary to use... Information and Communication Technology to coordinate Associated Institutions and scholars worldwide.

The Director, Institute of Research and Development, WBU Centre, also made comments that supported this. The Director, Institute of Information and Cultural Exchange (WBU) encapsulates the main point that the WBU "...is a kind of virtual university". These descriptions of how the WBU works are supported in the literature (see section 2.3 Examples of Networked Organisations) and the WBU Charter.

Virtual organisations could not operate without using ICT according to Rogers (2003, pp. 405-406) in the review of literature (sections 2.1 & 2.1.6) and this applies to The World Buddhist University. The main reason for this is that the nature of the organisation is dependant on the use of ICT. The International Affairs Coordinator (WBU) said "[The WBU]... would not be here without these technologies. They are central, they are fundamental to the operation of any complex organisation. Specifically, one of a global nature like the World Buddhist University." Eight respondents expressed similar comments about ICT as a necessary factor in the operation of the WBU as it is a non-traditional networked organisation. The Literature Review provided supporting evidence that the WBU is non-traditional and does not conform to any existing model and that the UNU is the closest model.

Three participants in the study talked about offering courses now being written and listed teachers. As many participants commented that the WBU has no students or teachers in the traditional sense, the researcher reviewed the WBU Charter and any proposal to offer courses appears to run counter to the documented intentions of the university and the sentiments of the other participants.

Another notable WBU policy is to be non-sectarian with regard to the Buddhist communities it embraces. Buddhist Scholar, Information and Cultural Exchange Centre (WBU) said, "For the organisation WBU... we have a chance to collaborate all denominations of Buddhism world wide... though we have the different sects... we can get along with each other... to harmonise and... to promote the Buddha's teachings." The Advisor to the WFB said, "I think it would be best if we can link around the Buddhist World. Try to link also the schools or Colleges in India and Bangladesh and China. ... They are a different sect Mahayana and we are Theravada but anyway there should be no prejudice against any sect." This inclusive attitude serves to strengthen the status of the WBU. This position also firmly establishes "Buddhism" as a religion from the perspective of the online world.

4.1.3 The website: the first stop for inquiries

The WBU website is the face of the university. It may be the first point of contact for visitors and paramount to the success of the virtual network. The Secretary General (WFB) said,

Especially by now the new technology has very fast development on the website on the electronic mail... We are now trying to work together to set up this technology, especially our website, in order to be one stop service to provide Buddhist Activities, in terms of knowledge about Buddhism, education and all these things in one place.

Chief of Information Systems (WBU) said "Someone should be able to go to our website and get all answers back. If they come with any question if they do not find their answer then just put the question up so we can see and answer." To fulfill the aim of the website to provide a one stop service is an immense task and an ongoing process. A dynamic website is required to fulfill the WBU objectives.

Just prior to the launch of the new website in October 2004 the Chief of Information Systems (WBU) said,

Now we have our own website what we call a static website actually it should be dynamic so that is why I have designed a new website. It should move every day every week, to be changed or to be improved.
The researcher joked: to show anicca [pronounced aneecha, meaning impermanence]
Chief of Information Systems (WBU): Yes like anicca.
Researcher: So you can teach impermanence by changing the website a lot.
Both: [laugh at Buddhist joke]

Between October 2003 and June 2004, the website has been transformed into a dynamic site. Five screenshots of the WBU website homepage are included here (Figure 4.2: The WBU website homepage).

Figure 4.2: The WBU website homepage

The website has a uniform design throughout its pages, easily navigated through hyperlinks. The homepage has a facility for members to login to their web-based email system. The website contains information about the WBU in the left hand frame. The central section contains current world Buddhist News. Below there are three main sections with a focus on WBU activities: WBU Buddhist forum, Meditation class and WBU Interviews. The public webboard system currently has twenty-one postings (at 31 May 2004). Of the twenty-one postings only three are in English and the rest are in Thai. Users can post comments on articles. The website is now a suitable framework to be the 'one-stop' service for Buddhism on the Internet as described by the Secretary General (of the WFB).

4.1.4 Perceived benefits and limitations of using ICT to meet WBU objectives

"...the WBU is a new kind of academic university. I think we cannot deny the role of Information Technology. We also have to know at the same time the strong point and weak point go together."
Deputy Rector for Foreign Affairs (Mahachula University)

Perceived benefits of using ICT

All respondents agreed that there were benefits in using Information and Communication Technology. A summary of perceived benefits based on recurring themes in the responses in interviews and questionnaires is presented in the following list.

Perceived benefits of using ICT
1.	can be used at anytime and anywhere
2.	faster - immediate/efficient - increased production/ more convenient/easier
3.	aids global communication
4.	information - storage, dissemination, receiving, searching
5.	publishing/writing
6.	for education/study/research/e-learning
7.	save cost, affordable

Table 4.3: List of perceived benefits of using ICT

Some of these benefits are presented in more detail in the following section.

ICT can be used 'anytime and anywhere'

One of the main benefits of email and the Internet is that their use is subject to no time and few geographical limits. The Office Manager (WBU) said "It is convenient and you can use any time you want". According to the Advisor of the WFB, "You can use [technology] any time, there is no need to have to wait - it is 24 hour use". As well as lack of time restraints, a main benefit was the ability to make international contact with others. In the view of an experienced user associated with the WFB, above what I had expected reaching world people ... there is no time limitation they can use websites whenever they want, they can write us whenever they want, 24 hours." The same sentiment was expressed by thirty-three of the forty (82.5%) participants.

The International Affairs Coordinator (WBU) said "We need to be in regular contact with people who are not right here right now so we need to have means of facilitation [for] ongoing global communication and these electronic and technical tools ... are very much a part of that." The experienced user associated with the WFB also said, "That does not have any limitation of place it would not have to be in the same country. Recently I had... a virus [on my website] and a friend... helped me reconstruct [it]? because hers was disease free." Another benefit of technology not being dependant on place is the ability to work from anywhere. The Chief of Information Systems (WBU) said "We use FTP server... I can connect by Internet... I can still work at home also from very far away." The benefit of using technology at anytime and to contact people in other countries were two of the main benefits mentioned by participants in this study and referred to in the literature by the researcher as the dissolution of time and space (see section 2.1 The Impact of the Internet and ICT on Global Communications) and by Castells (2000, p. 502) as the "supercession of space and time" (refer to 2.1.5 Supercession of space and time). Ferraris et al. (2000) also found that the advantage of open and distance models was flexibility in terms of place and time however the WBU is not based on existing western pedagogy.

Increased speed in performing tasks and acquiring information

Technology was seen by the participants as saving time because of the fast speed at which data could be accessed and transferred. For example, the Director of the Rector's Office (WBU) said, "It helps transfer my completed work to other people so quickly" and the Advisor to the WFB said "you just press a button with your finger. Everything is under your umbrella." A significant number of participants made comments such as, "Technology helps me do my work fast" and "It is easy for my work to search." The International Affairs Coordinator spoke about how collaborative research is much faster with ICT because "...this can be done ... literally at the speed of light... we can get our views exchanged and revise our own thinking so quickly and so readily with these technological tools that we would be lost without them." ICT was seen as a tool for increasing the speed of tasks and information exchange.

Technology saved time in completing tasks for some participants; usually in the preparation and dissemination of materials and documentation. The Director of the Rector's Office (WBU) commented, "We can minimise our time in connecting to the outside world." The International Affairs Coordinator (WBU) said ICT was used for "...immediate communication [and] conveying ideas, requests, ... [and] for disseminating documents or plans of the University or of my department and for receiving the same" and "...these technologies very much facilitate our objective to facilitate exchanging our view and it really shortens the time it takes for us." We can see in this example how technology was perceived as saving time, and technology changed the way people worked. The main benefit of global communication using ICT for global communication was that it is almost instantaneous and allows for collaboration (see Literature Review section 2.1.4 Global Communications).

More can be achieved in less time with ICT according to the Director, Associated Institution, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. who said, "Finer and finer tools mean more can be achieved in less time. This will help one of our key objectives to preserve the Buddha Dhamma at our Centre for the next 500 years." This organisations' lemma 'life-times of learning' is evident in its planning (see Literature Review section 2.2.10 Ideology of lifelong learning challenging our traditional models of education).

Global communications and networking

Twelve respondents said that technology helps to communicate with other people globally. Many participants mentioned that they used email as a way of communicating with the outside world because the University has no classes. The International Affairs Coordinator (WBU) said, "I make extensive use of fax or emailing, ...almost everyday several times a day to centers around the world...". The Director of the Rector's Office (WBU) said "This system of technology help[s] a lot to connect these associate organisations." Deputy Editor in Chief of the WBU Journal said "...now people from Italy, France and Turkey stop by and ask us questions". A participant associated with the WFB said, "it is very fast and ... the website in particular help to reach people you don't really expect to, ...in Chile, ...in China, places like that it is surprising the response we get." Castells (2000, p. 502) pointed out that networks constitute the new social morphology and are appropriate for organisations aiming at the supercession of space and the annihilation of time (section 2.1.6: Networks beyond space and time). The WBU is utilising its network to take advantage of the new benefits that have come with ICT development in recent times.

Technology helps with the writing process

Technology was seen as something that could help participants improve their writing and knowledge. Director of the Rector's Office (WBU) expressed this explicitly, "This technology help me to improve my ability in writing." A Lecturer at Mahachula University said technology is beneficial "...for writing the books and ...upgrading my knowledge". Deputy Rector for Foreign Affairs, Mahachula University, said "Also we can use our computer to write an article or to collect data and so we can use the Internet and data from many websites or communicate with all the organisations [this] is a strong point of Information Technology". Participants enjoyed the fact that ICT helps to improve writing their skills. The issue of whether writing is improved by ICT is a relatively new research area, although it is generally accepted that ICT makes the editing process easier.

Technology used for education

Technology was seen as a way to present information in forum and lecture environments. The Messenger (WBU) said, "Technology is beneficial because if we present our report the audience can see a concrete picture." Deputy Rector for Propagation and Foreign Affairs, Mahamakut Buddhist University, said he used technology "to help me to explain everything clearly to the students so it is easy for them to understand." Technology was also beneficial for study of the large canonical texts because with technology this could be read on CD-ROM and the learner would not have to sit in the library to access the books. Deputy Rector for Foreign Affairs, Mahachula University said, "I think that information technology or internet or CDROM that make... academic study more easier... We can turn on and study the Tripitika and scripture where ever we go..." The Tripitaka contains the Buddhist Teachings in many volumes that could not be carried around in paper based form. CD-ROMs enable the equivalent of books of data to be carried and accessed with ease.

The Lecturer at Mahachula University, said that ICT was most helpful "for my research work for preparing the teaching, [sourcing] news and information regarding the subject that I teach" and "when I am teaching in the class it also helps me to teach the students [using] PowerPoint." He also said, "Without technology the full knowledge cannot be done because at the present the learning process is focused on student centered so the teacher not only teach the students but you have to encourage them." This comment indicates that the lecturer is aware of student-centered or constructivist learning theory explained in the Literature Review (2.2.6 Revisiting constructivism) and is attempting to give students access to knowledge beyond the Teacher's base knowledge.

Cost effectiveness

Technology was seen as a cost effective way to communicate, Director of the Rector's Office (WBU) said "If we used another media it may cost... more, ...we can minimise our resources in using technology." ICT were also said to be cost efficient because they allow resources to be shared. Chief of Information Technology Systems (WBU) said "...the use of [an] information system... save[s] the cost... we can share print[ers], ...CD burner, ...scanner [etc]". This is supported in the Literature Review by Rogers (2003, p. 405) who argues that the Internet has practically eliminated costs of communications (refer to section 2.1.5 Supercession of space and time). It is evident that the WBU is containing its overheads by using network technology to share resources.

Perceived limitations

While six enthusiastic respondents said there were no limitations in using technology one less experienced user admitted, "I think that regarding this question, some limitations must be there." The perceived limitations of the technology used by the WBU are presented in Table 4.4 below.

Perceived limitations of using ICT
1.	lack of computer literacy/knowledge/skills
2.	have to adapt to 'Information Age'
3.	system breakdown/maintenance/viruses
4.	the use is based on English language
5.	not having up to date equipment/keeping up with technology/having to use electricity/phone line
6.	cost/funding
7.	not as good as having a face-to-face teacher/cannot communicate real essence of Buddhism through technology, as it is more spiritual and subtle.

Table 4.4: List of perceived limitations of using ICT

The recurrent themes in relation to the limitations of ICT revealed issues that may apply to other contexts. The more general issues are discussed in this section. The most interesting were the limitations particular to the WBU such as number four, "the use is based on English language" (addressed in section 4.2.3 Language as an issue) and number seven, "not as good as having a face-to-face teacher" (4.2.1 Two kinds of networking: ICT and F2F).

Limited knowledge and skills

Fifteen participants mentioned that they need to and want to learn more about using the technologies and software. This emerged in response to the question about limitations, and the answers indicate a positive. Participants saw the need to continue to learn so they could continue to benefit from what the technology has to offer. Technologies are still being refined and there are often associated problems, but the participants do not cite technology failure readily. In some cases this could have occurred due to the lack of knowledge about the technologies by the participants however the research revealed that most participants had at least a basic level of computer literacy so it is significant that the participants did not point out faults with the technology. The reluctance to make critical comments about the technology may be due to cultural politeness including the fact that most participants were Thai and all participants were Buddhist. The Buddhist teachings recommend the practice of right speech including no harsh or slanderous comments and this maybe one reason that few criticisms of the technologies were made.

Adapting to the Information Age

The Buddhist Scholar, Institute of Training and Curriculum Development (WBU) said "...there is a need for everybody... here at the World Buddhist University... to use this technology more than working in another place." Fifteen participants recognised this need for people wanting to be involved with the WBU to change and adapt to using ICT. One particular comment by the Buddhist Scholar, Information and Cultural Exchange Centre (WBU) stood out from the rest as he acknowledged his willingness to adapt;

The limitation may be when we have been in the information age and we have to adapt ourselves to adapt to new things or otherwise we do not know how to use it.

This key quote is a powerful statement about the need to adapt to use the emerging technologies. The WBU understands the rapid development of ICT and intends to grow and develop with it. Rogers (2003) explained that it takes time to adopt innovations such as ICT and this has been supported in this study. In Buddhism, adaptability and pliability of mind are considered virtuous qualities and the above participant demonstrates how they can be applied to adapting to using ICT. Rogers 1999 argued that ICT are transforming our culture (see 2.1.4 Global Communications) and hence adaptability is needed.

The Chief of Information Technology Systems (WBU) reflected on his practice:

I think using technologies is not enough. I have to improve my vision to communication with other institutes? Sometimes, this is difficult because sometimes we do have different opinion[s] in our discussion that caused me to have a meeting today to make a conclusion on how our website will look... ...the challenge is to make an informative website. I know it will take more time to complete it.

Here the Chief of IT Systems acknowledges the need to understand the vision of the organisation and the need to communicate with the personnel to make this happen.

Technology failure and maintenance

As discussed in the previous paragraphs there were few responses about technology failure as many participants saw the problem as resulting from their own lack of knowledge. A person from the WFB said it was a problem when "there are viruses...[and] ...when the system breaks down." The International Affairs Coordinator (WBU) said the limitations of the technology were "Maintenance of the equipment, computer break downs, Internet connections break down monitors, printers, copiers, mobile phones they break down and there is not necessarily the man power or the skill to provide continual maintenance." These were the only two comments made specifically on the technical limitations of ICT.

Costs associated with technology

The WBU has a small computer network consisting of about ten computers connected to one printer. Now that they are ready to expand the Director of the Rector's Office (WBU) said one of the main challenges to fully realising their objectives is "...to get some budget from the Government". The Director of Education Development based on Buddhism (WBU) revealed that the WBU had been awarded funding from the Thai government prior to the change in government and that now they had to apply "to get more budget". This participant provides us with some information about the funding issues the WBU faces if government departments change. These responses show that the attracting funding is an important issue for the World Buddhist University.

Inability to design own web pages

Buddhist Scholar, Institute for Spiritual Practice (WBU) expressed the inability to design his institution webpage as a limitation, "I cannot to set website or redesign because our university has personnel to work on website... I have to get in touch with head of Website to add information about our institution ...and he design for me." This indicates that persons within the institution would like to be able to have input into how their information is presented. Although not a recurring issue, the comment has been included here because it provides valuable feedback for the WBU. This is an issue that many large organisations face. A website needs to have consistency between pages so that viewers can associate the various departments with the organisation but at the same time the system needs to motivate the departments to contribute to the site by giving them some ownership over the way their content is displayed. This relates to the caution given in the literature to be wary of placing educators in one technology box or another (see section 2.2.3 Models for response to new ICT).

In summary, this first section (4.1 How ICT are used to meet WBU objectives) confirms that:

Technology is used by the WBU
ICT is used to facilitate the global network
The website is an integral part of the WBU
The benefits and limitations presented are in accordance with the literature

The next section (4.2) discusses further issues particular to the WBU.

| Contents |

4.2 Issues Particular to the WBU in its use of ICT

This section addresses the issues particular to the WBU in its use of ICT. The following topics are discussed:

Two kinds of networking: electronic and face-to-face (F2F)
Can Buddhism be learned using ICT?
Language as an issue
The digital divide
The generation divide: strategy for closing the gap
Buddhist values: motivation for contribution

These issues are particularly relevant to the WBU.

4.2.1 Two kinds of networking: ICT and F2F

What emerged from the responses was the need for face-to-face communication as a preliminary or to accompany the use of ICT. The Director, Institute of Research and Development (WBU) said "...we have to make personal contact and start from professors and someone that we already know and they trust us and by doing this by personal relationships then we start and ask them to recommend their friends to us and through this connection we can expand but slowly." Personal contact helps to build trust. ICT is not seen as completely obviating the need for face-to-face interaction. The WBU is an example of a new kind of organisation that is emerging (Martinich, 2002; Russell & Holkner, 2000; Spender, 1995). The Rocky View Virtual School (RVVS, 2000) offered face-to-face activities for socialisation (section 2.2.9 The rise of virtual education). Russell and Holkner (2000) described this type of system as a hybrid virtual school (see section 2.2.9 of the Literature Review).

One respondent saw learning through ICT as inferior to learning in the presence of a knowledgeable teacher. The Director of the Information and Cultural Exchange Centre (WBU) said,

...some people may like and some people may not like it, that it is a kind of virtual university. When you are studying from the computer screen [laughs], when you have any questions, you can ask any questions by writing your message or... question on the computer screen, but then it is not really as good as when you are studying with your teacher so that you can verbally discuss.

Rogers (1999) recognised that skilful facilitation using ICT relied on interpersonal relationships. In the Literature Review (section 2.2.7) a study trialing an Open and Distance Model training system found that participants would need to adapt to the use of technology to accommodate a new way of learning (Ferraris et al., 2000). This relates to the above comment because it reveals that adaptation is needed to embrace this new from of personal interaction. Some WBU staff are still using personal contact and referral before making the transition to ICT to communicate.

In summary, the two types of networking were seen as complementary systems. Director of the Research and Development Institute (WBU) said,

We have two kinds of networking, one through the computer and email and so on and more importantly the network through persons so we connect personally and electronically, so we can share our information, our knowledge, our perspective on Buddhism. ... I believe by doing both we have a better profile networking.

The WBU networks both electronically and personally and this is a strength of this new organisation.

4.2.2 Can Buddhism be learned using ICT?

It is questionable whether Buddhism as a spiritual practice may be taught using ICT. There was no question that ICT was useful in the study of Buddhism as an academic pursuit. To explain this distinction the words of the Venerable Monks are helpful. The Rector of Mahachula explains,

If you study scripture and come to discussion that is academic and not the centre of Buddhism that is the thing we have to be aware [of] the weak point of technology. I think the WBU have to seek some opportunity [for] student[s] to meet the teacher and to learn personally, directly from the teacher, not everything to rely on Information Technology. Information Technology is important to communicate but not everything depends on them or uses them.

Discussion of scriptures is not the same as the practice of Buddhism and ICT may not be appropriate for assisting with the latter. The Rector indicates that it is important for students to meet teachers and learn from them personally.

The Deputy Rector for Foreign Affairs, Mahachula University, explained further,

From my understanding the real essence of Buddhism is more spiritual and more subtle, that you cannot communicate, that you cannot pass from one to another through technology... I think the real essence of Buddhism the kind of spirituality the kind or realisation, the kind of enlightenment, it needs to be given from one person to another personally... I think that Information Technology can only provide information and data that you can use and put in description and do research on that. Buddhist Education is not like academic.

This comment reveals that Buddhism as a practice is more spiritual and subtle than academic study of the Buddhist scriptures and needs to be given personally and this recommendation is supported in the Buddhist texts. ICT in its present capacity is not seen as adequate to teach Buddhism as a spiritual practice, because close contact with a qualified teacher is a prerequisite to learning in most cases. This is one consideration not mentioned in the research literature examined.

Another main concern with Monks using ICT was that they continue to study the main subjects of Buddhism and not get side-tracked. Deputy Rector for Foreign Affairs Mahachula said

...the Monks, our lives depend on the laity, depend on the religion ... that education of the Monks ... to keep the continuity of Buddhism... the Monk need advice of three main subjects ... they have to clear about the teaching of the Buddha, to study deep in Pali Tripitaka and the main scripture of Buddhism. The Monk has to be trained in meditation, how to control themselves, how to keep themselves, how to make themselves good Monks. In the present world the monks also need to study the concern subject like language or technology ... to understand the world and the changing of society is necessary... and to make them a good Monk ... with the proper knowledge in the present world.

Here we can understand that Monks need to keep abreast of changes in society while maintaining their studies of the timeless teachings.

Two Monks from two different Buddhist Universities make a similar point here. The use of ICT is allowed in Buddhism. Monks take a precept to abstain from entertainments such as music or dancing. They also do not study other subjects at the expense of their Buddhist studies. Therefore using ICT is allowed as long as it does not divert the Monks from their practice. This caveat only applies to Monks. Laypeople do not need to take the precept to abstain from entertainments or worldly studies.

The foundations of morality, concentration and wisdom are as applicable to laypeople as they are to Monks for living a good life. The Director, Education Development based on Buddhism said

...the best way or the foundation for people to learn education is based on the sila (morality) and samadi (practice) and panna (wisdom). If you have skill you have experience you have wisdom. This is the way to develop people. ...Buddhism is for everybody not only Thai people who can use good things like samadi meditation... To know how to practice meditation and the products of meditation can help everybody not stray and have good mind.

The three foundations of Buddhism are needed for correct practice.

A challenge for the Lecturer, Department of Political Science (Mahachula University) was,

At this University, we have mainly Buddhist Monks so the Monks they are from poor areas... they do not have a good education. When they were young they ordain as a Buddhist Monk and [go] to study in higher education we teach them and give them more knowledge... sometimes it is hard to teach them. They are from a variety of society.

Although this Monk talks about his experience in Thailand this is likely to be relevant to other Buddhist communities.

Deputy Rector for Propagation and Foreign Affairs, Mahamakut Buddhist University also explained the challenges associated with adaptation to ICT by Theravada Buddhist Monks, "They want to make step and step. That is why in those days about ten or twenty years back we don't have the modern technology like this but now we are ok we are going step by step, but we try to learn slowly like that."

4.2.3 Language as an issue

Both English and Thai native speakers saw language differences as a challenge. The Advisor to the WFB mentioned that technology depends on the English language and this is why language becomes an issue regarding the use of ICT. One native English speaker said that language was a particular challenge in their work at the WBU;

Language is a definite challenge. ...majority of the... staff are Thai. ... English is a second language for them. This frequently presents challenges of not only linguistic understanding but cultural meaning as well and we always have to be alert... to what we are saying linguistically and how it may be... interpreted by non-native English speakers. There are obvious practical considerations like just not getting what you want but there are underlying social implications as well, in building up a level of trust or not between your colleagues here. That is one challenge here that I find myself working on here day in and day out.

A Native Thai speaker said,

Another one is that because of the linguistic problem... we speak English ok but because we also have to speak Thai... most of the time... When we have to speak English sometimes it feels inconvenient to do so but once we are motivated to speak with good English speaking people then only we can speak alright but even [I] have used English for more than 40 years but I am bound to make errors very often.

Another native Thai speaker said, "It is quite difficult for Thais in general to master your language [English]." Many participants desired to learn more English. The Acting Rector advised that it was WBU policy to speak English. The researcher observed that some meetings were conducted in Thai and some meetings were conducted bilingually. For native English and Thai speakers alike ensuring clear communication was a main concern.

4.2.4 Digital divide

In Thailand, the use of ICT is not widespread. These technologies are available mainly in Bangkok, unlike in Australia where these technologies are available in remote locations albeit with some limitations. The Buddhist Scholar, Institute of Training and Curriculum Development (WBU) said,

For me because I cannot use it quickly because actually I have been trained about the computer for a long time, for two years, but in Thailand you see only just start two years [ago] and majority of people just only interested about this technology even the government have to approve for support for people to use communication but they are slowly accepting this information but now it is increasing [in] interest, everybody has to know has to use communication technology even in the village everybody has to use...

It is only in the last two years that the Thai government has had a policy to encourage the use of these technologies, establishing a new Ministry for this purpose (see section Literature Review 2.1.7 What about the 'digital divide'?). The Director of Research and Development of the (WBU) said "Thailand is a developing country so the technology that we possess is still limited so we do our best to build a network system so we can reach out and we can get response from the world." It is likely these technologies will be available more widely in Thailand over the next few years. While all respondents reported that there were benefits in using the technologies, many Thai participants had limited experience or access.

4.2.5 Generation divide: strategy for closing the gap

Some of the senior staff members mentioned that they were unfamiliar with the modern technology. A recently appointed Director (WBU) said, "Technology in the context of IT followed by many other things like Internet... I am not familiar with [them] because I am not a modern man. I am a man of old age [laughs]." This Director had stated in the interview that he first conceived of the idea of a World Buddhist University, indicating broad vision beyond current physical and technological limitations. The Deputy Rector for Propagation and Foreign Affairs, Mahamakut Buddhist University, reflected, "Sometimes I am too old to take in new information." The Chief of Information Systems (WBU) recognised the gap between the younger and older generations in their capacity to learn the new technologies, "We have to train our staff in using the technology. This is very necessary now. Some of our staff, the old people, they have never used computers before. For young people, there is no problem because they can learn very fast." The researcher asked The Chief of IT Systems the question, "How do they feel about the technology?" Chief of IT Systems replied, "They [older and less technologically skilled staff] do not have a negative view of the technology. They are very happy." From this and other supportive comments made by senior staff we can understand that all age groups are embracing the technology as a positive and something that can benefit the organisation. We next turn to how the WBU overcomes the generation divide that exists in the organisation.

During a website consultation meeting (see Figure 4.3: Pictures taken during the website consultation meeting) the researcher gained much insight into how the younger and older staff work together in harmony. The researcher observed that by the use of a digital projector connected to a laptop on the LAN, the younger and more technologically savvy staff were able to receive feedback from the most senior members. In this forum the young staff were able to benefit from the wisdom of the senior members. This is one way the WBU works to close the generation gap in regard to technology.

Figure 4.3: Pictures taken during website consultation meeting (used with permission)

4.2.6 Buddhist values: motivation for contribution

Many participants expressed their personal benefit in being associated with the WBU. One Buddhist Scholar, Institute of Training and Curriculum Development said he chose to work for the WBU "... for the sake of Buddhism and for the sake of me... When I say for the sake of me I can get merit... when we are talking about the Buddha Dhamma... we can [give] something to others who want to know. That is one way of merit making." Buddhist Scholar, Information and Cultural Exchange Centre (WBU) expressed a similar sentiment, "I work here in the centre...[and] it means I have... more opportunity to learn more Buddhist Teaching and...to work for a Buddhist organisation... to spread the Buddhist Teaching... worldwide." Deputy Editor, WBU Journal said, "I work here because I have faith in Buddha's Dhamma." The Buddhist Scholar, Institute of Spiritual Practice (WBU) said, "I consider the principles of the Buddha and I try to write it so it is the easy way for people to practice so that is the opportunity in my work." The Enterprise Technology Manager, WBU Associated Institution, said "My work as Enterprise Technology Manager enables me and our organisation to accumulate great merits by helping to spread and preserve the Buddha's Teaching". Many respondents also had the altruistic wish to see world peace and a goal to use the network to help others in need in times of disaster. The main motivator for their contribution to the WBU was their faith in the Buddhist teachings and their understanding of merit. Merit is the benefit that comes from involvement in wholesome activities (see section 1.4.4 Buddhism, the Triple Gem, precepts, merit and the wish for enlightenment). It is believed that by doing good and avoiding evil one achieves a wholesome and peaceful mind-state. This is the kind of mind-state that is needed for meditation and access to wisdom.

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4.3 Future Developments

The International Affairs Coordinator (WBU) said

The opportunities for the World Buddhist University are limitless. ... I see ... not only us developing but... also other people with whom we engage in associate relationships developing as... their development will in turn facilitate our development and there will be a symbiotic association. We will all develop and the WBU from our standpoint will be at the centre of that development.

This section discusses possible future developments or strategies.

4.3.1 World Buddhist Libraries

The Enterprise Technology Manager of an Associated Institution indicated that in the future they will have an interactive Dhamma learning website, with PHOTOLAN picture library (i.e. Online searchable database of photographs), which is under development. This is an example of how Associated Institutions may contribute to the WBU's operations at local and global levels. The work at this Centre is an example of ICT facilitating research and learning. The plan for a data warehouse to be made available online would contribute to an electronic Buddhist world library as envisioned by Dertouzos (1998) as a future approach that will truly improve learning (section 2.2.5 ICT and learning).

4.3.2 Linked email and webboard system

The Acting Rector (WBU) and The Chief of IT Systems (WBU) and a person associated with the WFB said that the communication between network members would increase through the use of email. The Acting Rector (WBU) said,

"the Members of the World Buddhist University ... have been working hard on the website and ... thinking of giving every centre an email address of the same name. If we can have email system and the website with all the contact lists... this would be a very good way of showing which organisations are already under the umbrella. ...the technology [and] the website is a good way to communicate this to the other organisations.

The Chief of IT Systems (WBU) also said that he would be assigning email addresses to WBU Associated Institutions and scholars so that they could access common areas of the website, logging in to post information to the website from their remote locations.

The participant associated with the WFB suggested that there could be a forum that links into the Buddhist community for technology support through email and webboard exchange. The idea of email exchange and webboard forums are forms of asynchronous communication (see Literature Review 2.1.2 Asynchronous and synchronous ICT systems) where users respond to items of interest or contribute new topics for discussion at their convenience. Asynchronous systems were suggested by Ingram et al. (2000, p. 21) as an appropriate means for discussions that require reflection and that there is a need to decide if it is desirable to have a moderator of such systems to ensure content is appropriate and topical. This also applies to the WBU. If the WBU developed these systems to successfully support Buddhist academics then they would be offering a service not currently available from any major Buddhist website.

4.3.3 Virtual conferencing and global forums

Life Member of the Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. envisioned "greater involvement in global forums via the speedy dissemination of data, virtual conferencing, the use of a global network of interconnected experts." Global forums are an advanced form of synchronous systems (see Literature Review section 2.1.2 Asynchronous and synchronous ICT systems) made possible by the Internet and ICT developments. Synchronous systems such as internet chat facilities (Ingram et al., 2000, p. 21) were discussed in section 2.2.7 Creative teaching methods and the age of the active learners. These systems are suited to discussions and may be useful to the WBU for forums. Forums may be informal or question and answer sessions with a qualified Monk on Buddhist topics or with WBU staff to answer questions about the WBU.

Buddhist Scholar, Institute of Information and Cultural Exchange Centre (WBU) said "we are testing the use of web cams... in the future we will use it... I think the World Buddhist University we have to collaborate all denominations... of Buddhists so we can keep in touch with each other by using this kind of technology". Webcam technology is an evolution of the chat facility where audio and video are used instead of just text in real time.

4.3.4 International exchange

The Advisor to the WFB said, "I totally agree with this the discussion group we could sponsor ourselves, we could have a friendship program to have exchange, they only have to pay their own transportation... for two months."

Buddha Dhamma Student and Member of Associated Institution the Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. said, "We have an opportunity to provide Buddha Dhamma Teaching Program online to interested persons. We have many rare artifacts to catalogue and photograph to share with others through exhibitions or for research purposes."

The President, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. said,

The World Buddhist University has now an opportunity to develop a truly global learning facility. Our foundations are in local communities on every continent linked by the Internet to support scholarship right around the world. It is a resource that feeds all the good things in the world, peace, compassion and wisdom. Small centres such as ours are the knowledge houses and engines for the student of Buddha Dhamma in the 21st Century enabled by the vision and international connectivity of World Buddhist University.

4.3.5 Holograms

The Enterprise Technology Manager and a Life Member of the Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. both mentioned the possible use of holograms. The development of hologram technology will be a welcome development. The Founder of this Centre had explained his vision of their use in meetings where concepts could be displayed in three dimensions. The researcher was also informed by the Enterprise Technology Manager, that the hologram/laser technology is the technology of the future and will be used for data storage well beyond present capabilities.

A humorous suggestion

A lighthearted response came from the International Affairs Coordinator, who said, "Dr Spock transmitting yourself bodily Melbourne to Bangkok that kind of technology would certainly be useful."

All the ideas presented in this section could be incorporated into a hypermedia system discussed by Hakke, Pfister and Wessner (1999, p. 20) in the Literature Review (see 2.2.7 Creative teaching methods and the age of the active learners). The first feature of the system developed by Haake et al. relevant to the WBU is that it supports synchronous and asynchronous learning in distributed groups including those suggested as future developments by WBU respondents. The other feature of the hypermedia system by Haake et al. that accords the objectives of the WBU is that the group knowledge status was viewable by learning nets. This may be actualised in the future when overhead costs between remote sites are reduced and when IP audio is sufficient to support hypermedia systems such as this.

It seems that it is early days for the WBU. It is just beginning - but with the backing of the 50 years strong WFB and with the use of a range of new technologies, it is sure to grow rapidly in terms of both credibility and function.

This chapter on findings of the research has presented focused vignettes on topics relevant to the research question of how ICT are used by the WBU. It has described how the WBU is using ICT for research, learning and communication, and how the WBU provides and facilitates academic services. There are issues particular to the WBU in the use of ICT. This chapter also provided suggestions for future use of ICT based on the comments by participants. In the next chapter the findings are summarised, recommendations are presented, the methodology is evaluated, limitations of the study are discussed, suggestions for future research are made, achievements of the research are outlined, and the implications of the study are drawn.

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Chapter 5 : Conclusion

The purposes of this case study were to:

describe how ICT is used by the WBU to meet its educational purposes and objectives;
describe how the WBU Coordinating Centre uses ICT in providing and facilitating academic services for faculty, students and organisations working for the same ends;
investigate the issues particular to the WBU in its use of ICT;
benefit the WBU by providing some suggestions for how technology may be used to influence the University's future direction as a virtual university, and
add to the body of knowledge on how ICT can be used by virtual universities.

These purposes and the focus questions posed in Chapter One have been addressed under three broad headings in Chapter 4: Discussion of Findings: How ICT are Used, Issues Particular to the WBU, and Future Developments. The main findings are summarised in the following section.

5.1 Summary of Findings

5.1.1 How ICT is used

Technology used by the WBU

The WBU is just a few years old and has only been using ICT for a limited time. Most participants used ICT in their daily tasks. Internet was used by 80% of respondents, and this was mainly for research. Email was also widely used for communicating and exchanging information. The WBU has set up an internal intranet and a website. Both these systems are in their early stages of use and development. A few participants used PowerPoint for clarifying concepts when presenting a lecture or giving a talk.

ICT used to facilitate the global network

The WBU has developed a strong foundation for its operations as a globally networked learning organisation modelled on successful world-wide organisations such as the UNU and UNESCO. ICT is without doubt fundamental to its operations. Forty faculty and students of the WBU participated in this research by way of interview or questionnaire. The WBU faculty and students expressed their commitment to putting into practice objectives to provide facility for research, learning and communication through its network. The WBU is a new kind of network, free from the traditional structure of education consisting of teachers, students and a body of knowledge to be learnt. The literature has suggested that networks are the new "social morphology" (Castells, 2000, p. 502) of our time. The WBU is by no means the first or most advanced in this kind of networking although most respondents had a similar understanding of the nature of the WBU as a virtual university.

The website: the first stop for inquiries

The new WBU website was launched during this research. Prior to this, the WBU website contained basic company information. Some participants said that the website was fundamental to the operation of the WBU because as a virtual university the website is the face of the university. The new dynamic website may achieve the aim of providing a one stop service in the future.

The benefits and limitations of using ICT to meet WBU objectives

Participants' responses to the questions on the benefits and limitations of using ICT were for the most part in line with the literature. The tables of most frequently mentioned benefits and limitations are reproduced here:

Perceived benefits of using ICT
1.	can be used at anytime and anywhere
2.	faster - immediate/efficient - increased production/ more convenient/easier
3.	aids global communication
4.	information - storage, dissemination, receiving, searching
5.	publishing/writing
6.	for education/study/research/e-learning
7.	save cost, affordable

Perceived limitations of using ICT
1.	lack of computer literacy/knowledge/skills
2.	have to adapt to 'Information Age'
3.	system breakdown/maintenance/viruses
4.	the use is based on English language
5.	not having up to date equipment/keeping up with technology/having to use electricity/phone line
6.	cost/funding
7.	not as good as having a face-to-face teacher/cannot communicate real essence of Buddhism through technology, as it is more spiritual and subtle.

There were limitations (number 4 & 7) that were not mentioned in the Literature Review and hence were discussed as particular issues for the WBU.

It is notable that the issue of the cost of technology emerged as both a benefit and limitation (refer to 4.1.4). This may be because technology provides a cost efficient means of communication once a suitable infrastructure is in place (see 4.2.4 Digital divide).

The faculty and students of the WBU acknowledge both the limitations of ICT in achieving their objectives and their personal limitations in using ICT. In acknowledging this, many saw the need to change and adapt in order to make the best use of ICT.

The Chief of IT appeared to be under a good deal of pressure due to the lack of conceptual solution. He felt the need to improve his vision and provide the technical infrastructure. Given clear direction, he would be able to concentrate on the technical aspects of his work. The Directors are still acquiring the knowledge of the technology required to translate the vision into a directive for the IT staff.

5.1.2 Issues Particular to the WBU

Issues particular to the WBU with regard to using ICT have emerged even at this early stage of development.

Two kinds of networking: electronic and face-to-face

The WBU network is being developed in two ways; electronically and personally. Both elements were found to be important to the WBU. Participants acknowledged the benefits of using technology for networking but found that trust and rapport was easier to develop using face-to-face communication. Some thought that learning on a screen is not as effective as face-to-face teaching.

Can Buddhism be learned using ICT?

It was discovered that Buddhism as an academic pursuit can be aided by the use of ICT but it is dubious whether Buddhism as a practice can be transmitted online because it is so subtle and has been passed from teacher to student for centuries as recommended by the texts. Buddhism is usually practiced in communities. The WBU must be wary of people thinking they can achieve this through the technology alone. ICT could be a threat to the traditional forms of Buddhist instruction and care needs to be taken not to undermine the fundamental teachings. This is one issue not mentioned in the literature.

As stated in the Assumptions (section 1.3) the use of ICT is not contrary to the Buddhist teachings however there are some caveats on this. Lay Buddhists who live a family life and keep five precepts (a code of morality to abstain from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and taking intoxicants that cloud the mind) may use ICT for any legal purpose not contrary to these precepts. There were concerns about Buddhist Monks using ICT for some purposes because many Monks adhere to 227 precepts including the abstinence from entertainments (such as listening to music or theatrical plays or dancing). Another issue for Monks using ICT or learning about worldly subjects is that it must not interfere with their learning of Pali language or study of Buddhist texts. The main areas of study and development in Buddhism are morality, concentration and wisdom as the means of reaching enlightenment.

Language as an issue

Most participants in this study were native Thai speakers and used English sometimes. The WBU has a policy of working globally and using English as the language for communication. This posed a challenge for the Thai people in expressing themselves in English as a second language. A native English speaker working at the WBU said that it was a daily challenge to ensure clear communication with non-native English speakers.

The digital divide

Participants explained that the WBU is located in Thailand where ICT have only become available in the city areas in the last few years and are not yet available in most of the villages. This was an issue for the WBU because many of the staff and students had little exposure to the technologies. Participants who resided in Australia had better access to technology and for a longer time. Participants' comments were in line with the literature on this issue.

The generation divide: strategy for closing the gap

This research found that the senior WBU staff were not as skilled as younger staff in using ICT and was difficult for them to learn. One way the WBU addressed this issue was by organising a staff consultation meeting about the proposed new website. The website was displayed using a digital projector and this allowed the staff to work collaboratively. Buddhist values: motivation for contribution This research showed that the participants' main motivation for contributing to the WBU was that they could make merit and share the Buddhist teachings with others. The organisation was strengthened by the common ideology among participants because they had common goals.

5.1.3 Future use of ICT

Participants suggested a number of ways ICT could be used in the future. It was suggested that Buddhist organisations around the world could be linked through the Internet, email and webboard systems, virtual conferencing and global forums. In future the WBU may be able to, with more advanced video and hologram technology, include the development of virtual teachers using the Internet to provide a traditional teacher student face-to-face relationship suitable for learning Buddhist teachings.

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5.2 Recommendations

A hypermedia system like the one developed by Haake, Pfister and Wesser (1999) in the Literature Review (section 2.2.7) is something that could integrate all the suggestions for future use of ICT by the WBU. In this way the WBU could allow for the students and faculty to learn each for himself or herself in line with the Buddhist and constructivist way. This new way of learning is non-linear due to the fact that information on the Internet can be perused according to the interests of the researcher rather than preordered information instructed by a teacher or contained in a textbook. A Buddhist online learning environment would need to embrace a new pedagogy capable of supporting Buddhist methods of learning.

The WBU is making some use of asynchronous systems but is yet to take advantage of synchronous communications.

The WBU needs to move beyond the function of the scriptoria in just reproducing the texts and develop new ways of learning like a fully searchable World Buddhist Library, data warehouse and other future developments. Clearly more planning is needed because to date the systems have been developed ad hoc. Perhaps an intranet site set up with WAN (Wide Area Network) access for Associated Institutions and Scholars could be developed and contain more sensitive information such as Members and organisations contact details and profiles. Such databases could be available to Associate Institutions and associated Buddhist Scholars.

The WBU website contains a webboard. The researcher recommends that these posts be made available in the English and Thai languages as majority of the postings are in Thai. Allowing postings to the webboard in Thai is a threat to the WBU's vision to operate globally as it will only attract Thai people and not a world audience. It is WBU policy to conduct global communications in English. As it appears that some of the postings may be advertisements, the researcher also recommends that this webboard be moderated by a World Buddhist University Staff Member to ensure that the content is appropriate (ethical and relevant).

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5.3 Evaluation of Methodology

The methodology was developed concurrently with the extensive Literature Review, which suggested research into the effectiveness of ICT. This case study used ethnographic methods that captured attitudes and issues particular to the WBU with regard to the use of ICT.

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5.4 Limitations of the Research

One limitation of the design was that some of the participants were of higher social status than the researcher. This may have affected the collection of data in some cases where the researcher felt interrupting or asking further questions during the interview would be disrespectful. This may have also affected the reporting of the data.

The limitation of the question "what technologies are used" was that three Monks and one layperson did not answer this question. One reason was that in a group interview of one layperson and three Monks only the response from the layperson was recorded as using the technologies specified. In another case, a senior Monk was being interviewed by the researcher and because of the seniority of the Monk in relation to the researcher and the protocol of not interrupting a Senior Monk, the question was left unanswered. The researcher did not ask the Venerable the questions but invited the Monk to speak freely on the subject after he had read the question himself. Most of the remaining questions were answered in his discussion. In the fifth case, there was only sufficient time to ask one question to the Secretary-General of the WFB and so this question was not addressed.

Most participants (and interpreters) used English as a second language and hence they could only express what they could say in English. Another limitation could be that the Thai culture of politeness and wanting to please the researcher may have influenced the participants to be agreeable and reluctant to say anything contrary about technology.

Many participants were more comfortable conducting the interviews in Thai. Reponses were interpreted by native Thai speakers into English and some answers were not detailed because of this. In retrospect it would have been valuable to test the questionnaire with a native Thai speaker as many of the questions had to be re-phrased to simplify and ensure correct understanding. Simpler expression may have elicited more extensive answers.

One problem from the data generated from the questionnaires was that most respondents (including native English speakers) answered in point form so while it was possible to include this information in the findings, there were less quotable passages to express the information using the 'voice' of the participant.

Another limitation of the study is that the World Buddhist University is a new university and some of the staff who participated in the interview had only been working for the organisation for a few months. Some of the Associated Institutions had only been associated for a short time and so information and communication exchange has just begun.

Data was only collected in Bangkok and Melbourne so this limits the results. The institutions in other countries such as the USA were not involved. Participants in this study spanned only four countries or residences, and could have been expanded to better reflect the global nature of the organisation.

The researcher only spent 10 days at the World Buddhist University Centre.

The opportunity to interact with Members of the Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. was not fully utilised as interviews were not conducted (participants filled out the questionnaires). This in the end may have helped keep the research focused on the WBU Centre because interviews with native speakers of English (in comparison with native Thai speakers using English as a Second language) may have generated proportionally more data and have caused an over representation of the Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. in the findings disproportionate to the number of people interviewed.

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5.5 Suggestions for Further Research

There were many additional questions beyond this research and some are included here as suggestions for future research:

Where can eastern philosophy be learned?

What kind of studies, knowledge, learning experiences and skills are offered by the WBU?

How is the teaching of Buddhism achieved through the networks of the World Buddhist University?

There is potential for further development of Information and Communication Technology by the World Buddhist University to enhance the roles and mission of the University among its networks in the future.

The WBU would benefit from setting up a system to evaluate their operations periodically to determine if they are meeting their objectives and to plan for how they will do this in the future.

A longitudinal study, of the use of ICT by the WBU would facilitate an understanding of the effectiveness of the use of ICT over time.

Further research could include the Associated Institution in the USA and other Associated Institutions that have been nominated since the commencement of the present study.

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5.6 Achievements of the Research

The main achievement of this research in the field of education is its impact on the future development of the virtual university. Although the WBU is relatively new as a virtual university, it is up and running, and therefore has provided an effective case study in the area of networked education.

I developed a rapport with participants and they were comfortable enough to share their experiences with me. I was also able to interview Buddhist Monks associated with the WBU because I adhered to the religious and cultural protocols. Some of the most interesting issues particular to the WBU in its use of ICT came from these interviews.

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5.7 Implications of this Study

This study has documented how an alternative learning institution is embracing ICT and the issues that have arisen in its use of ICT. The purpose of this research to add to the body of knowledge on how ICT can be used by virtual universities was not met because the results of this study cannot be generalised beyond the organisation studied.

Conducting this investigation into the issues surrounding the use of ICT by the WBU has been both personally and professionally rewarding for the researcher. It is hoped that this research project is useful to the WBU in reflecting on the issues particular to the WBU in their use of ICT at present; especially the issues of language and also in exploring how ICT can be best used to meet their objectives in the facilitation of Buddhist studies and practice. This research has highlighted some of the ways ICT may be developed and I hope this may assist the WBU in their planning for ICT use in the future.

May you be well and happy.

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Appendix 1: Further Acknowledgements

The researcher extends her gratitude to all the persons in the organisations involved in the research who assisted with the research process in some way.

Dr Ananda W.P. Guruge, Dean, Academic Affairs and Director The International Academy of Buddhism of the Hsi Lai University, Los Angeles County, California, USA, recognized as an Academic Research and Training Centre of the World Buddhist University, Chairperson of the Council of the World Buddhist University for the enthusiasm with which he supported this research in its proposal stage and his continued support in the approval process.

Mr Pinayo Prommuang, Buddhist Scholar, Institute of Spiritual Practice, World Buddhist University Centre, for interpreting English and Thai as needed during interviews and taking photographs.

Miss Anyarat Muadmanee, IT Officer, World Buddhist University Centre, for taking photographs.

Mr Phubes Sukjam, Buddhist Scholar, Information and Cultural Exchange Centre, World Buddhist University Centre, for sharing his workspace with the researcher while she was in Thailand and for experimenting with the use of webcams with the researcher.

Mrs Chris Sinclair, Melbourne University, Language, Literacy and Arts Education, Faculty of Education, for her advice on conducting qualitative research.

Mr Julian Bamford, President, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. for reading the entire thesis and making comments.

Mr Peter Boswell, Director and Financial Controller, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. for financial support given to assist with travel to Thailand and for moral support and discussing ideas.

Ms Evelin Halls, Director and Enterprise Technology Manager, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd., Student Monash University, Clayton for lending resources and listening to frequent updates of how the research is going.

Ms Leanne Eames, Information Officer Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. for proofreading and editing completed thesis.

Mr Terry Mayne for proofreading completed thesis.

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Appendix 2: Acknowledgement of Participants

Thank you to the following people who participated in an interview or who completed a questionnaire without which this research would not have been possible. (Names used with permission)

1. Venerable Dr Paitoon Ruensat, Deputy Rector for Propagation and Foreign Affairs, Mahamakut Buddhist University.

2. Phramaha Boonthai Punnumano, Mahamakut Buddhist University

3. Thitaphan Lolotsunthorn, Mahamakut Buddhist University.

4. Phra Kruvinai Suwan, Mahamakut Buddhist University.

5. Staff Member, Mahamakut Buddhist University.

6. Phra Sripariyatimoli (Somchai Kusalacitto) Deputy Rector for Foreign Affairs, Mahachula University.

7. Phra Wichai Palawuttaco, Mahachula University.

8. Dr Konit Srithong, Mahachula University.

9. Dr Thatchanan Issaradet, Department of Political Science, Mahachula University.

10. Mr Phallop Thaiary, Secretary General, World Fellowship of Buddhists

11. Ms Piyaporn Erbprasartsook, Advisor, World Fellowship of Buddhists.

12. Ms Amara Chayabongse, World Fellowship of Buddhists.

13. Dr Nantarsarn Seesalab, Acting Rector, WBU.

14. Mr Ruangdej Srimuni, Director Rector Office, WBU.

15. Dr Chris A. Standford, International Affairs Coordinator, WBU.

16. Dr Tavivat Puntarigvivat, Director, Institute of Research and Development, WBU.

17. Miss Tidarat Phahaisuk, Buddhist Scholar, Institute of Research and Development, WBU.

18. Associate Professor Dr. Subhadr Panyadeep, Director, Institute of Training and Curriculum Development, WBU.

19. Mr Boonsri Kaewkamsri, Buddhist Scholar, Institute of Training and Curriculum Development, WBU.

20. Dr Soomboon Duandsamosorn, Director, Information and Cultural Exchange Centre, WBU.

21. Mr Pongset Setabutr, Deputy Editor in Chief WBU Newsletter, Institute Information and Cultural Exchange Centre, WBU.

22. Mr Phubes Sukjam, Buddhist Scholar, Information and Cultural Exchange Centre, WBU.

23. Assistant Professor Dr Banjob Bannaruji, Director, Institute of Spiritual Practice, WBU.

24. Mr. Pinayo Prommuang, Buddhist Scholar, Institute of Spiritual Practice, WBU.

25. Dr Amnaj Buasiri, Director, Institute of the Educational Development Based on Buddhism, WBU.

26. Dr Yuttana Praneet, Buddhist Scholar, Institute of the Educational Development Based on Buddhism, WBU.

27. Mr Thonpon Khampan, Chief of IT Systems, Information Technology, Rector Office, WBU.

28. Miss Anyarat Muadmanee, IT Officer, Information Technology, Rector Office, WBU.

29. Mrs Supicha Ounreun, Chief of Administration, Administration and Management, Rector Office, WBU.

30. Miss Thiwaporn Isart, Finance and Accountancy, Administration and Management, Rector Office, WBU.

31. Mr Anan Toola, Messenger, Administration and Management, Rector Office, WBU.

32. Mrs Dok-eang Chaiyasut, General Services, Administration and Management, Rector Office, WBU.

33. Ms Evelin Halls, BA, Director, Director and Enterprise Technology Manager, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd.

34. Mr Rodney Johnson, Member, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd.

35. Mr Peter Boswell, Director and Financial Controller, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd.

36. Ms Lisa Nelson, Member, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd.

37. Mrs Anita M. Hughes, Director, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd.

38. Ms Julie O?Donnell, Assistant Secretary, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd.

39. Mr Julian Bamford, President, Buddhist Discussion Center (Upwey) Ltd.

40. Ms Lainie Smallwood, Member, Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd.

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Appendix 3: Glossary of Special Terminology and Acronyms

Given the nature of the study there are specific terms used that relate to Technology and Buddhist practice or terminology and have been included here to facilitate the reading of this thesis.

Achan or Ajarn or Ajan: respectful title used in Thailand for teacher, instructor, or professor. anicca (impermanence): Pali language word, referring to one of the characteristics of existence as presented in the Buddhist teachings. This aspect deals with the fact that all composite things are subject to change.

APEC: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

B.E.: stands for Buddhist Era; the Buddhist System of counting years, a year is the same length as in the (Christian Era C.E.) but has been used and counted from the year of Death of the Buddha. Buddhist Era is used in Thailand and other Buddhist Countries and Communities. This year 2004 Christian Era is 2547 Buddhist Era.

Bricolage: "a complex, dense, reflexive, collage like creation that represents the researcher's images, understandings, and interpretations of the? phenomena under analysis." (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 4)

Dhamma or Dharma: Pali language word, literally means that which forms a foundation, its interpreted meanings are vast, to summarise very briefly: condition, phenomenon, teachings as formulated. Cyber Sangha: Online community of Buddhists, Monks, Nuns and Teachers.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP): is a system used to transfer files from one computer to another in a remote location. FTP is commonly used to 'upload' webpages to an Internet server that in turn makes the file available to a world-wide audience.

Globalisation: refers to entrenched and enduring patterns of worldwide interconnectedness rather than mere random encounters (Held & McGrew, 2000, p. 3).

Information and Communication Technology (ICT): an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, mobile phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and distance learning (Tech Target Network, 2004).

Local Area Network: (LAN): is a system for connecting a number of computers to a common server for communication between the computers or sharing of files. The system is confined to a geographical area such as a building or organisation.

Metta: Pali language term, loosely translated as loving-kindness.

Merit: is the benefit that comes from good actions

NSICT: World Buddhist University Network System of Information and Communication Technology.

Pali: a language very close to the language the Buddha used. Many of the Buddhist texts are recorded in the Pali language.

Phra: honourific title for Buddhist Monks in Thailand, translated into English as venerable.

Samadi: A type of Buddhist Meditation or mind-state translated from the Pali as tranquility meditation. Samadi meditation aims to bring the mind to a quiet, one-pointed concentration state.

Sangha: Community of Buddhist Monks, Nuns and Teachers

Theravada: The main system of Buddhism practiced in Thailand, Sri Lanka and Burma among other countries.

United Nations University (UNU): a network of networks working for common humanitarian and academic objectives since 1973.

Venerable: an English word, used here as a respectful title for Buddhist Monks. Virtual university: a university that relies on the Internet and ICT to facilitate learning and research.

World Buddhist University Centre (WBU Centre): located in Bangkok, Thailand and serving as the coordinating centre of the network of Associated Institutions.

WBU headquarters: synonymous with World Buddhist University Centre, as above.

World Fellowship of Buddhists headquarters (WFB headquarters): in Bangkok, Thailand.

The World Fellowship of Buddhists, founded over 50 years ago, is a network of Buddhist organisations approved as Regional Centres (see below).

WFB Regional Centres: There are 140 regional centres of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in 39 countries. Representatives of these organisations meet every two years at the General Conference.

World Fellowship of Buddhist Youth (WFBY): a network of organisations established by and associated with the World Fellowship of Buddhists.

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Appendix 4: Letter of Permission to Conduct Research

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Appendix 5: List of Organisations Involved in the Research

The World Buddhist University, Headquarters
3rd floor 616 Benjasiri Park,
Soi Medhinivet off Soi Sukhumvit 24,
Sukumvit road, Bangkok 10110, Thailand
Telephone: (66-2) 258-0369-73
Fax: (66-2) 258-0372
http://www.wb-university.org
Email: wbucentre@wb-university.org

The World Fellowship of Buddhists Headquarters
616 Benjasiri Park,
Soi Medhinivet off Soi Sukhumvit 24,
Sukumvit road, Bangkok 10110, Thailand
Telephone: (662) 6611284-87
Fax: (662) 661-0555
Website: http://www.wfb-hq.org
Email: wfb_hq@asianet.co.th

Mahachula University (MCU)
Wat Mahadhatu
Telephone: (662) 623-6328, 255-8686 ext.106
www.mcu.ac.th/index.php
webmaster@mcu.ac.th

Mahamakut Buddhist University
248 Wat Bovornives Vihara,
Bangkok, 10200 Thailand
www.mbu.ac.th

Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. (also known as Chan Academy Australia),
33 Brooking Street, Upwey, 3158.
Telephone/Fax +61 3 97543 3334
Email: wbu@bdcu.org.au
Websites: www.bdcu.org.au; www.bdcublessings.net.au; www.bddronline.net.au; www.bsbonline.com.au; www.buyresolved.com.au; www.edharma.org

Appendix 6: Interview Questions and Questionnaire

Question One: How are you associated with the World Buddhist University?

Question Two: What Information and Communication Technologies do you use?

Please specify from the list below and add any others:

Internet

External Email

Scanner

Digital camera

Computers

Computer Network

Internal Email

Cd Burners

Video Camera

Audio

Printers

Telephone

Mail

Fax

Others...

Question Three: For what purposes do you use these technologies?

Question Four: Are there benefits in using these technologies?

Question Five: Are there limitations in using these technologies?

Question Six: How does the use of these technologies relate to your objectives?

Question Seven: How do you think the use of technology may assist your organisation(s) to meet its objectives?

Question Eight: Are there any publications that may assist with this research?

Question Nine: What other opportunities do you see in your work and/or for the Organisation?

Question Ten: What problems or challenges do you see in your work and/or for the Organisation?

[The interviewer may ask other questions on themes that arise during an interview] Please add other comments/questions.

May you be well and happy!

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Participants in the study
Institution	Interview	Questionnaire	Total
World Buddhist University Center, Bangkok, Thailand	20		20
World Fellowship of Buddhists (Founding Organisation)	3		3
Mahamakut Buddhist University (Associated Institution)	5		5
Mahachula University (Associated Institution)	3	1	4
Buddhist Discussion Centre (Upwey) Ltd. (Associated Institution)		8	8
Total	31	9	40